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Punjabi, sometimes spelled Panjabi, is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Punjab region of Pakistan and India. It is one of the most widely spoken native languages in the world, with approximately 150 million native speakers.
Punjabi is the most widely-spoken first language in Pakistan, with 88.9 million native speakers according to the 2023 Pakistani census, and the 11th most widely-spoken in India, with 31.1 million native speakers, according to the 2011 census. It is spoken among a Punjabi diaspora, particularly in Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia, and the Gulf states.
In Pakistan, Punjabi is written using the Shahmukhi alphabet, based on the Persian alphabet; in India, it is written using the Gurmukhi, based on the Brahmic scripts. Punjabi is unusual among the Indo-Aryan languages and the broader Indo-European language family in its usage of lexical tone.
Panj is cognate with Sanskrit (), Greek language pénte (πέντε), and Baltic languages Penki, all of which meaning 'five'; āb is cognate with Sanskrit áp () and with the of . The historical Punjab region, now divided between India and Pakistan, is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries. One of the five, the Beas River, is a tributary of another, the Sutlej.
In the second millennium, Punjabi was lexically influenced by Portuguese India (words like almārī), Greek language (words like dām), Japanese (words like rikśā), Chinese language (words like cāh, līcī, lukāṭh) and English language (words like jajj, apīl, māsṭar), though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. In fact, the sounds // (ਜ਼ / ), // (ਗ਼ / ), // (ਕ਼ / ), // (ਸ਼ / ), // (ਖ਼ / ) and // (ਫ਼ / ) are all borrowed from Persian, but in some instances the latter three arise natively. Later, the letters ਜ਼ / , ਸ਼ / and ਫ਼ / began being used in English borrowings, with ਸ਼ / also used in Tatsama.
Punjabi has also had minor influence from and on neighbouring languages such as Sindhi language, Haryanvi, Pashto and Hindustani.
| President | ਰਾਸ਼ਟਰਪਤੀ () | () |
| Article | ਲੇਖ () | () |
| Prime Minister | ਪਰਧਾਨ ਮੰਤਰੀ ()* | () |
| Family | ਪਰਵਾਰ ()* ਟੱਬਰ () | () () |
| Philosophy | ਫ਼ਲਸਫ਼ਾ () ਦਰਸ਼ਨ () | () |
| Capital city | ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ () | () |
| Viewer | ਦਰਸ਼ਕ () | () |
| Listener | ਸਰੋਤਾ () | () |
In India, Punjabi is written in the Gurmukhī script in offices, schools, and media. Gurmukhi is the official standard script for Punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the Latin scripts due to influence from Indian English, one of India's two primary official languages at the Union-level.
In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, which in literary standards, is identical to the Urdu alphabet, however various attempts have been made to create certain, distinct characters from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq characters to represent Punjabi phonology, not already found in the Urdu alphabet. In Pakistan, Punjabi loans technical words from Persian language and Arabic, just like Urdu does.
| +Census history of Punjabi speakers in Pakistan The figure of 80.54 million is calculated from the reported 38.78% for the speakers of Punjabi and the 207.685 million total population of Pakistan. | |||
| 22,632,905 | |||
| 28,468,282 | |||
| 43,176,004 | |||
| 40,584,980 | |||
| 58,433,431 | |||
| 80,540,000 | |||
| 2023 | 240,458,089 | 36.98% | 88,915,544 |
Beginning with the 1981 and 2017 censuses respectively, speakers of the Lahnda's Saraiki language and Hindko varieties were no longer included in the total numbers for Punjabi, which explains the apparent decrease. Pahari-Pothwari speakers however are included in the total numbers for Punjabi.
| +Census history of Punjabi speakers in India |
| 2.57% |
| 2.95% |
| 2.79% |
| 2.83% |
| 2.74% |
There were 670,000 native Punjabi speakers in Canada in 2021, 300,000 in the United Kingdom in 2011,273,000 in England and Wales, and 23,000 in Scotland:
280,000 in the United States and smaller numbers in other countries.
The Standard Punjabi used in India and Pakistan has slight differences. In India, it excludes many of the dialect-specific features of Majhi. In Pakistan, the standard is closer to the Majhi spoken in the urban parts of Lahore.Shahzadi, Sehrish; et al. (2021). "Multilingualism and Language Shift in Punjabi Society: A Sociolinguistic Study". Pakistan Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 9(2): 349–358.
Sometimes, Dogri language and Kangri language are grouped into this category.
Depending on context, the terms Eastern and Western Punjabi can simply refer to all the Punjabi varieties spoken in India and Pakistan respectively, whether or not they are linguistically Eastern/Western.
The three retroflex consonants do not occur initially, and the nasals most commonly occur as allophones of in clusters with velars and palatals (there are few exceptions). The well-established phoneme may be realised allophonically as the voiceless retroflex fricative in learned clusters with retroflexes. Due to its foreign origin, it is often also realised as , in e.g. shalwār . The phonemic status of the consonants varies with familiarity with Hindustani norms, more so with the Gurmukhi script, with the pairs , , , , and systematically distinguished in educated speech, /q/ being the most rarely pronounced. The retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap.
In rare cases, the /ɲ/ and /ŋ/ phonemes in Shahmukhi may be represented with letters from Sindhi. The /ɲ/ phoneme, which is more common than /ŋ/, is written as or depending on its phonetic preservation, e.g. /ɲaːɳaː/ (preserved ñ) as opposed to /kiɲd͡ʒ/ (assimilated into nj). /ŋ/ is always written as .
Phonotactics, long vowels /aː, iː, uː/ are treated as doubles of their short vowel counterparts /ə, ɪ, ʊ/ rather than separate phonemes. Hence, diphthongs like ai and au get monophthongised into /eː/ and /oː/, and āi and āu into /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ respectively.
The phoneme /j/ is very fluid in Punjabi. /j/ is only truly pronounced word-initially (even then it often becomes /d͡ʒ/), where it is otherwise /ɪ/ or /i/.
It is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants () lost their aspiration.
The five tonal plosives also become voiceless word-initially. E.g. ghar > kàr "house", ḍhōl > ṭṑl "drum" etc.
Tonogenesis in Punjabi forfeits the sound of h for tone. Thus, the more h is realised, the less "tonal" a word will be pronounced, and vice versa. Tone is often reduced or rarely deleted when words are said with emphasis or on their own as a form of more exact identification.
Sequences with the consonant h have some additional gimmicks:
The consonant h on its own is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word-initially.Lata, Swaran; Arora, Swati (2013) "Laryngeal Tonal characteristics of Punjabi: An Experimental Study" However, certain dialects which exert stronger tone, particularly more northern Punjabi varieties and Dogri language, pronounce h as very faint (thus tonal) in all cases. E.g. hatth > àtth.
The Jhangvi dialect and Shahpuri dialect dialects of Punjabi (as they transition into Saraiki language) show comparatively less realisation of tone than other Punjabi varieties, and do not induce the devoicing of the main five tonal consonants ( bh, dh, ḍh, jh, gh).
The Gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds, so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time.
Some other languages in Pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions, including Burushaski, Gujari language, Hindko, Kalami language, Shina language, and Torwali language,Baart, J.L.G. "Tonal features in languages of northern Pakistan" though these (besides Hindko) seem to be independent of Punjabi.
All consonants except six ( ṇ, ṛ, h, r, v, y) are regularly geminated. The latter four are only geminated in from other languages.
There is a tendency to irregularly geminate consonants which follow long vowels, except in the final syllable of a word, e.g. menū̃ > mennū̃. It also causes the long vowels to shorten but remain peripheral, distinguishing them from the central vowels /ə, ɪ, ʊ/. This gemination is less prominent than the literarily regular gemination represented by the diacritics mentioned above.
Before a non-final prenasalised consonant, long vowels undergo the same change but no gemination occurs.
The true gemination of a consonant after a long vowel is unheard of but is written in some English loanwords to indicate short /ɛ/ and /ɔ/, e.g. ਡੈੱਡ /ɖɛɖː/ "dead".
Punjabi distinguishes two genders, two numbers, and six grammatical case, direct case, oblique case, vocative case, ablative case, locative case, and instrumental. The ablative occurs only in the singular, in free variation with oblique case plus ablative postposition, and the locative and instrumental are usually confined to set expressions.
, when declinable, are marked for the gender, number, and case of the nouns they qualify. There is also a T-V distinction.
Upon the grammatical case is built a system of particles known as , which parallel English's . It is their use with a noun or verb that is what necessitates the noun or verb taking the oblique case, and it is with them that the locus of grammatical function or "case-marking" then lies.
The Punjabi system is largely structured around a combination of aspect and tense/Grammatical mood. Like the nominal system, the Punjabi verb takes a single inflectional suffix, and is often followed by successive layers of elements like auxiliary verbs and postpositions to the right of the lexical base.
The written standard for Shahmukhi also slightly differs from that of Gurmukhi, as it is used for western dialects, whereas Gurumukhi is used to write eastern dialects.
Historically, various local Brahmic scripts scripts including Laṇḍā and its descendants were also in use.
The Punjabi Braille is used by the visually impaired. There is an altered version of IAST often used for Punjabi in which the diphthongs ai and au are written as e and o, and the long vowels e and o are written as ē and ō.
ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨੀ ਪੰਜਾਬ ਦੀ ਰਾਜਧਾਨੀ ਹੈ। ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਦੇ ਨਾਲ਼ ਕਰਾਚੀ ਤੋਂ ਬਾਅਦ ਲਹੌਰ ਦੂਜਾ ਸਭ ਤੋਂ ਵੱਡਾ ਸ਼ਹਿਰ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਸਿਆਸੀ, ਕਾਰੋਬਾਰੀ ਅਤੇ ਪੜ੍ਹਾਈ ਦਾ ਗੜ੍ਹ ਹੈ ਅਤੇ ਇਸੇ ਲਈ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਪਾਕਿਸਤਾਨ ਦਾ ਦਿਲ ਵੀ ਕਿਹਾ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ। ਲਹੌਰ ਰਾਵੀ ਦਰਿਆ ਦੇ ਕੰਢੇ ’ਤੇ ਵੱਸਦਾ ਹੈ। ਇਸਦੀ ਲੋਕ ਗਿਣਤੀ ਇੱਕ ਕਰੋੜ ਦੇ ਨੇੜੇ ਹੈ।
Shahmukhi
IPA
Translation
Lahore is the capital city of Pakistani Punjab. After Karachi, Lahore is the second largest city. Lahore is Pakistan's political, cultural, and educational hub, and so it is also said to be the heart of Pakistan. Lahore lies on the bank of the Ravi River. Its population is close to ten million people.
The Janamsakhis, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), are early examples of Punjabi prose literature.
In India, Punjabi is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. It is the first official language of the Indian State of Punjab. Punjabi also has second language official status in Delhi along with Urdu, and in Haryana.
In Pakistan, no regional ethnic language has been granted official status at the national level, and as such Punjabi is not an official language at the national level, even though it is the most spoken language in Pakistan. It is widely spoken in Punjab, Pakistan, the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan, as well as in Islamabad Capital Territory. The only two official languages in Pakistan are Urdu and English.
Punjabi is not a language of instruction for primary or secondary school students in Punjab Province (unlike Sindhi and Pashto in other provinces). Pupils in secondary schools can choose the language as an elective, while Punjabi instruction or study remains rare in higher education. One notable example is the teaching of Punjabi language and literature by the University of the Punjab in Lahore which began in 1970 with the establishment of its Punjabi Department.University of the Punjab (2015), "B.A. Two-Year (Pass Course) Examinations"
In the cultural sphere, there are many books, plays, and songs being written or produced in the Punjabi-language in Pakistan. Until the 1970s, there were a large number of Punjabi-language films being produced by the Lollywood film industry, however since then Urdu has become a much more dominant language in film production. Additionally, television channels in Punjab Province (centred on the Lahore area) are broadcast in Urdu. The preeminence of Urdu in both broadcasting and the Lollywood film industry is seen by critics as being detrimental to the health of the language.
The use of Urdu and English as the near-exclusive languages of broadcasting, the public sector, and formal education have led some to fear that Punjabi in Pakistan is being relegated to a low-status language and that it is being denied an environment where it can flourish. Several prominent educational leaders, researchers, and social commentators have echoed the opinion that the intentional promotion of Urdu and the continued denial of any official sanction or recognition of the Punjabi language amounts to a process of "Urdu-isation" that is detrimental to the health of the Punjabi language"Inferiority complex declining Punjabi language: Punjab University Vice-Chancellor". PPI News Agency
In August 2015, the Pakistan Academy of Letters, International Writer's Council (IWC) and World Punjabi Congress (WPC) organised the Khawaja Farid Conference and demanded that a Punjabi-language university should be established in Lahore and that Punjabi language should be declared as the medium of instruction at the primary level. In September 2015, a case was filed in Supreme Court of Pakistan against Government of Punjab, Pakistan as it did not take any step to implement the Punjabi language in the province. Additionally, several thousand Punjabis gather in Lahore every year on International Mother Language Day. Thinktanks, political organisations, cultural projects, and individuals also demand authorities at the national and provincial level to promote the use of the language in the public and official spheres."Mind your language—The movement for the preservation of Punjabi". The Herald. 2 September 2106.
Both union and state laws specify the use of Punjabi in the field of education. The state of Punjab uses the Three Language Formula, and Punjabi is required to be either the medium of instruction, or one of the three languages learnt in all schools in Punjab. Punjabi is also a compulsory language in Haryana, and other states with a significant Punjabi speaking minority are required to offer Punjabi medium education.
There are vibrant Punjabi language movie and news industries in India, however Punjabi serials have had a much smaller presence within the last few decades in television up to 2015 due to market forces. Despite Punjabi having far greater official recognition in India, where the Punjabi language is officially admitted in all necessary social functions, while in Pakistan it is used only in a few radio and TV programs, attitudes of the English-educated elite towards the language are ambivalent as they are in neighbouring Pakistan. There are also claims of state apathy towards the language in non-Punjabi majority areas like Haryana and Delhi.
== Gallery ==
/ref>"Punjabi Language". The Sikh Encyclopedia.
/ref>
Eastern Punjabi
"Eastern Punjabi" refers to the varieties of Punjabi spoken in Pakistani Punjab (specifically Northern Punjabi), most of Indian Punjab, the far-north of Rajasthan and on the northwestern border of Haryana. It includes the dialects of Majhi dialect, Malwai dialect, Doabi dialect, Puadhi dialect and the extinct Lubanki dialect.
Western Punjabi
"Western Punjabi" or "Lahnda" (, ) is the name given to the diverse group of Punjabi varieties spoken in the majority of Pakistani Punjab, the Hazara region, most of Azad Kashmir and small parts of Indian Punjab such as Fazilka. These include groups of dialects like Saraiki language, Pahari-Pothwari, Hindko and the extinct Inku language; common dialects like Jhangvi dialect, Shahpuri, Dhanni dialect and Thali dialect which are usually grouped under the term Jatki Punjabi; and the Mixed language of Punjabi and Sindhi languages called Khetrani.
Phonology
While a vowel length distinction between short and long vowels exists, reflected in modern Gurmukhi orthographical conventions, it is secondary to the vowel quality contrast between central vowel and peripheral vowels in terms of phonetic significance.
The peripheral vowels have nasal vowel. There is a tendency with speakers to insert /ɪ̯/ between adjacent "a"-vowels as a separator. This usually changes to /ʊ̯/ if either vowel is nasalised.
+
! Back vowel
Note: for the tonal stops, refer to the next section about Tone.
+
! colspan="2" ! Labial consonant
! Dental consonant/
Alveolar
! Retroflex
! Post-alv./
Palatal
! Velar consonant
! Uvular consonant
! Glottal (1996). 9780631198154, Blackwell. ISBN 9780631198154 Some speakers lenition the voiceless aspirates /t͡ʃʰ, pʰ, kʰ/ into fricatives /ɕ, f, x/ respectively.
Diphthongs
Like Hindustani, the diphthongs /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ have mostly disappeared, but are still retained in some dialects.
Tone
Unusually for an Indo-Aryan language, Punjabi distinguishes lexical tones. (1999). 9783110143881, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110143881 Other tonal Indo-Aryan languages include Hindko, Dogri language, Western Pahari, Sylheti language and some Dardic languages. Three tones are distinguished in Punjabi (some sources have described these as tone contours, given in parentheses): low (high-falling), high (low-rising), and level (neutral or middle).Bailey, T.Grahame (1919), English-Punjabi Dictionary, introduction.Singh, Sukhvindar, "Tone Rules and Tone Sandhi in Punjabi".Bowden, A.L. (2012). "Punjabi Tonemics and the Gurmukhi Script: A Preliminary Study" . The transcriptions and tone annotations in the examples below are based on those provided in Punjabi University, Patiala's Punjabi-English Dictionary.
Level tone is found in about 75% of words and is described by some as absence of tone. There are also some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second. (Some writers describe this as a fourth tone.) However, a recent acoustic study of six Punjabi speakers in the United States found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant.Kanwal, J.; Ritchart, A.V (2015) "An experimental investigation of tonogenesis in Punjabi". Proceedings of the 18th International of Phonetic Sciences, 2015
ਘਰ ghar Punjabi University (2018). p. 281 low house ਕਰ੍ਹਾ karhā Punjabi University (2018). p. 194 high powdered remains of cow-dung cakes ਕਰ kar Punjabi University (2018). p. 192 level do, doing ਝੜ jhaṛ Punjabi University (2018). p. 369 low shade caused by clouds ਚੜ੍ਹ chaṛh Punjabi University (2018). p. 300 high rise to fame, ascendancy ਚੜ caṛ level hangnail
Mechanics
In Punjabi, tone is induced by the loss of h in tonal consonants. Tonal consonants are any voiced aspirates /ʱ/ and the voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/. These include the five voiced aspirated plosives bh, dh, ḍh, jh and gh (which are represented by their own letters in Gurmukhi), the h consonant itself and any voiced consonants appended with h (Gurmukhi:੍ਹ "perī̃ hāhā", Shahmukhi: "dō-caśmī hē"); usually ṛh, mh, nh, rh and lh.
Gemination
Gemination of a consonant (doubling the letter) is indicated with adhak in Gurmukhi and Shadda in Shahmukhi. Its inscription with a unique diacritic is a distinct feature of Gurmukhi compared to Brahmic scripts.
Grammar
Punjabi has a canonical word order of SOV (subject–object–verb).Gill, Harjeet Singh and Gleason Jr, Henry A. (1969). A Reference Grammar of Panjabi. Patiala: Department of Linguistics, Punjabi University Function words are largely marking grammatical case on a preceding nominal.
Vocabulary
Being an Indo-Aryan language, the core vocabulary of Punjabi consists of tadbhava words inherited from Sanskrit. (2025). 9780195139778, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195139778 (1993). 9780415003209, Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415003209 It contains many loanwords from Persian language and Arabic.
Writing systems
The Punjabi language is written in multiple scripts (a phenomenon known as synchronic digraphia). Each of the major scripts currently in use is typically associated with a particular religious group, although the association is not absolute or exclusive.
In India, Punjabi Sikhs use Gurmukhi, a script of the Brahmic scripts family, which has official status in the state of Punjab. In Pakistan, Punjabi Muslims use Shahmukhi, a variant of the Perso-Arabic script and closely related to the Urdu alphabet. Sometimes Punjabi is recorded in the Devanagari script in India, albeit rarely. The Punjabi Hindus in India had a preference for Devanagari, another Brahmic script also used for Hindi, and in the first decades since independence raised objections to the uniform adoption of Gurmukhi in the state of Punjab, but most have now switched to Gurmukhi and so the use of Devanagari is rare. Often in literature, Pakistani Punjabi (written in Shahmukhi) is referred as Western-Punjabi (or West-Punjabi) and Indian Punjabi (written in Gurmukhi) is referred as Eastern-Punjabi (or East-Punjabi), although the underlying language is the same with a very slight shift in vocabulary towards Islamic and Sikh words respectively.
Sample text
This sample text was adapted from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Lahore.
Literature development
Medieval period
Modern period
The Victorian novel, Elizabethan drama, free verse and Modernism entered Punjabi literature through the introduction of British education during the Raj. Nanak Singh (1897–1971), Vir Singh, Ishwar Nanda, Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Puran Singh (1881–1931), Dhani Ram Chatrik (1876–1957), Diwan Singh (1897–1944) and Ustad Daman (1911–1984), Mohan Singh (1905–78) and Shareef Kunjahi are some legendary Punjabi writers of this period.
After independence of Pakistan and India Najm Hossein Syed, Fakhar Zaman and Afzal Ahsan Randhawa, Shafqat Tanvir Mirza, Ahmad Salim, and Najm Hosain Syed, Munir Niazi, Ali Arshad Mir, Pir Hadi Abdul Mannan enriched Punjabi literature in Pakistan, whereas Jaswant Singh Kanwal (1919–2020), Amrita Pritam (1919–2005), Jaswant Singh Rahi (1930–1996), Shiv Kumar Batalvi (1936–1973), Surjit Patar (1944–) and Pash (1950–1988) are some of the more prominent poets and writers from India.
Status
Despite Punjabi's rich literary history, it was not until 1947 that it would be recognised as an official language. Previous governments in the area of the Punjab had favoured Persian, Hindustani, or even earlier standardized versions of local registers as the language of the court or government. After the annexation of the Sikh Empire by the British East India Company following the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, the British policy of establishing a uniform language for administration was expanded into the Punjab. The British Empire employed Urdu in its administration of North-Central and Northwestern India, while in the North-East of India, Bengali language was used as the language of administration. Despite its lack of official sanction, the Punjabi language continued to flourish as an instrument of cultural production, with rich literary traditions continuing until modern times. The Sikh religion, with its Gurmukhi script, played a special role in standardising and providing education in the language via , while writers of all religions continued to produce poetry, prose, and literature in the language.
In Pakistan
When Pakistan was created in 1947, despite Punjabi being the majority language in West Pakistan and Bengali language the majority in East Pakistan and Pakistan as whole, English and Urdu were chosen as the official languages. The selection of Urdu was due to its association with South Asian Muslim nationalism and because the leaders of the new nation wanted a unifying national language instead of promoting one ethnic group's language over another, due to this the Punjabis elites started identifying with Urdu more than Punjabi because they saw it as a unifying force on an ethnoreligious perspective. Broadcasting in Punjabi language by Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation decreased on TV and radio after 1947. Article 251 of the Constitution of Pakistan declares that these two languages would be the only official languages at the national level, while provincial governments would be allowed to make provisions for the use of other languages. However, in the 1950s the constitution was amended to include the Bengali language.
"Punjabi in schools: Pro-Punjabi outfits in Pakistan threaten hunger strike". The Times of India. 4 October 2015.
"Rally for Ending the 150-year-old Ban on Education in Punjabi" The Nation. 21 February 2011.
In India
At the federal level, Punjabi has official status via the Eighth Schedule to the Indian Constitution, earned after the Punjabi Suba movement of the 1950s. At the state level, Punjabi is the sole official language of the state of Punjab, while it has secondary official status in the states of Haryana and Delhi. In 2012, it was also made additional official language of West Bengal in areas where the population exceeds 10% of a particular block, sub-division or district.
Advocacy
Governmental academies and institutes
The Punjabi Sahit academy, Ludhiana, established in 1954 is supported by the Punjab state government and works exclusively for promotion of the Punjabi language, as does the Punjabi academy in Delhi. The Jammu and Kashmir academy of art, culture and literature in Jammu and Kashmir UT, India works for Punjabi and other regional languages like Urdu, Dogri, Gojri etc. Institutions in neighbouring states as well as in Lahore, Pakistan also advocate for the language.
Software
, Rajasthan, India]]
See also
Notes
Citations
Sources
Further reading
External links
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